CULTS
AND NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
Boyle, Robin A. 1999. “How Children in Cults May Use Emancipation Laws to Free Themselves.” Cultic Studies Journal pp. 1-32.
Hunter, Eagan. 1998. “Adolescent Attraction to Cults.” Adolescence vol. 33, pp. 709-714.
Abstract: Discusses the
reasons behind adolescents' attraction to cults. These include identity
confusion, alienation from family members, weak cultural, religious, and
community ties, and feelings of powerlessness in a seemingly out-of-control
world. The author recommends that parents, teachers, and counselors familiarize
themselves with the warning signs of at-risk adolescents. The author offers
suggestions on how to make adolescents less vulnerable to cult overtures. [Source: PI]
Goodman, Gail S., Jodi A. Quas, Bette L. Bottoms, Jianjian Qin, Phillip R. Shaver, Holly Orcutt, and Cheryl Shapiro. 1997. “Children's Religious Knowledge: Implications for Understanding Satanic Ritual Abuse Allegation.” Child Abuse and Neglect vol. 21, pp. 1111-1130.
Abstract: Examined the
extent of children's religious, especially satanic, knowledge and the influence
of children's age, religious training, family, and media exposure on that
knowledge. Using a structured interview, 48 3- to 16-yr-old children were
questioned about their knowledge of: (a) religion and religious worship; (b)
religion-related symbols and pictures; and (c) movies, music, and television
shows with religious and horror themes. Although few children evinced direct
knowledge of ritual abuse, many revealed general knowledge of satanism and
satanic worship. With age, children's religious knowledge increased and became
more sophisticated. Increased exposure to nonsatanic horror media was
associated with more nonreligious knowledge that could be considered precursory
to satanic knowledge, and increased exposure to satanic media was associated
with more knowledge related to satanism. The results suggest that children do
no generally possess sufficient knowledge of satanic ritual abuse to make up
false allegations on their own.
[Source: PI]
Simandl, Robert J. 1997. “Teen Involvement in the Occult.” Pp. 215-230 in The Dilemma of Ritual Abuse: Cautions and Guides for Therapists. Clinical Practice, No. 41, edited by George A. Fraser. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.
Abstract: (from the chapter)
The purpose of this chapter is to focus on teenagers and young adults who
dabble with the symbols and rituals associated with satanism and other areas of
the occult, or the experimental teen dabbler group. Experimental teen dabblers
refers to adolescents who exhibit ritual behaviors but do not have family
involvement. The other purpose of this chapter is to alert therapists about
ritualized abuse. Teen dabbling at times can lead to serious consequences;
early intervention by therapists and law enforcement agents can prevent or
curtail involvement in ritual activities. The chapter discusses the following
topics: dabbler/experimentalist behavior indicators; crime scene and homicide
investigations; reported criminal activities committed by ritual groups and
family tree information file. [Source:
PI]
Emerson, Shirley and Yvonne Syron. 1995. “Adolescent Satanism: Rebellion Masquerading as Religion.” Counseling & Values vol. 39, p. 145.
Abstract: Describes
adolescent satanic practice as studied by the authors working with affected
families in southwestern states over a period of seven years. Dilemma for
counselors to understand how satanism is related to religion; Comparison of
personal values with values inherent in satanism; Danger to adolescents'
involvement in satanism. [Source: AS]
Kang, Wi Jo. 1995. “Youth, Religious Cults, and World Mission.” Currents in Theology and Mission vol. 22, pp. 292-293.
Lowney, Kathleen S. 1995. “Teenage Satanism as Oppositional Youth Subculture.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography vol. 23, pp. 453-484.
Abstract: An ethnographic
portrait resulting from five years of field work with a coven of teenage
Satanists in a Southern community is presented. The writer describes the
dominant culture of the community as the Satanists saw it and describes their
critique of that culture. She then analyzes the development of a Satanic style
by the coven as an expression of their opposition to the dominant culture. She
argues that the psychological, folklore, and constructionist perspectives on
Satanism are lacking the important voice of the adolescent Satanists themselves
and that by listening to them, it becomes clear that Satanism enables them to
challenge the norms and values of the dominant culture. The writer concludes
that as the coven lacked the material power to institute social change, either
in the social structure of the high school or in the wider community, its
critique of the dominant culture could only operate at the symbolic level. [Source: SS]
Curtis, J. M. and M. J. Curtis. 1993. “Factors Related to Susceptibility and Recruitment by Cults.” Psychological Reports vol. 73, pp. 451-460.
Abstract: Unprecedented
escalation of secular and religious cults has necessitated further inquiry into
more precise conditions under which individuals develop vulnerability and
become converted by these groups. The present discussion focuses on a number of
factors which seem to influence individuals' susceptibility and recruitment by
cults. These variables include (a) generalized ego-weakness and emotional
vulnerability, (b) propensities toward dissociative states, (c) tenuous,
deteriorated, or nonexistent family relations and support systems, (d)
inadequate means of dealing with exigencies of survival, (e) history of severe
child abuse or neglect, (f) exposure to idiosyncratic or eccentric family
patterns, (g) proclivities toward or abuse of controlled substances, (h)
unmanageable and debilitating situational stress and crises, and (i)
intolerable socioeconomic conditions. Also presented are methods utilized by
cults, e.g., intimidation, coercion, and indoctrination, for systematically
recruiting, initiating, and influencing inductees. More careful attention to
these factors might help health care providers, educators, clergy, and
concerned family and friends determine more precisely individuals at greater
risk for recruitment into cults.
[Source: SC]
Mercer, Joyce Ann. 1993. “The Devil Made Me Do It: Teens, Drugs, and Satanism.” Reclaiming Children and Youth: Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Problems vol. 2, pp. 11-15.
Abstract: Examines teen
Satanism as a phenomenon of adolescent development issues & its relation to
chemical abuse. An overview of cults & the Church of Satan is given as a
context for identifying social alienation of youth & high-risk behaviors of
drug use & sexual exaltation. A case study is presented of a male (age 16)
who engaged in satanic rituals for reasons of self-esteem. It is asserted that
five issues are central to the relation between adolescent development &
Satanism: identity, authority, sexuality, belonging, & spirituality. [Source: SA]
Tucker, Rob. 1993. “Teen Satanism.” Pp. 356-381 in Recovery from Cults: Help for Victims of Psychological and Spiritual Abuse, edited by Michael D. Langone. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co Inc.
Abstract: (from the chapter)
outlines emergent concerns relating to . . . adolescent Satanism [draws] two
different profiles of teens attracted to Satanism [presents] two cases [of a 14-yr-old male and of a 15-yr-old
female] based on the two profiles
[considers treatment issues] in terms of the two profiles classification
of levels of involvement in Satanism, attractions to Satanism, measuring the
incidence of Satanism, Satanism as religion, therapy vs the practice of a
religion. [Source: PI]
Stevens, P. 1992. “Dduniversal Cultural Elements in the Satanic Demonology.” Journal of Psychology and Theology vol. 20, pp. 240-244.
Abstract: The
"Black" or "Satanic Mass- is the western Christian variant of a
complex scenario that expresses people's most basic and terrible fears. Many
elements in the scenario, called a demonology, are found universally and
throughout history. Anthropological examination of them suggests that they
represent sub-cultural, innate fears deeply rooted in our evolutionary biology.
This paper briefly discusses certain motifs prominent in the satanic
demonology, including: nocturnal activity, ritual murder and the ritual use of
blood, cannibalism and vampirism, incest and other forms of illicit sexuality,
general fears of danger to children, and death, all of which represent
universal cultural fears. Also considered are certain elements which seem
specific to Western variants of the demonology, e.g., torment with snakes and
spiders, and urine and feces. The possibilities of primate parallels to some of
these features of the demonology is also considered. Cultural bases for these
elements and the significance of their distribution may help to explain the
widespread allegations of horrible deeds by satanic Cults, and the testimonies
of "survivors" of satanic rituals.
[Source: SC]
Swatos, William H., Jr. 1992. “Adolescent Satanism: A Research Note on Exploratory Survey Data.” Review of Religious Research vol. 34, pp. 161-169.
Abstract: A 3-wave
questionnaire survey of a purposive sample of 1,182 high school sophomores
& juniors conducted in a midwestern metropolitan area 1989/90 used a
"close friend" approach to ask questions about Satanic activity,
since patterns of behaviors among teenagers are likely to be similar between
individuals & close friends. Involvements in Satanic activity are related
to other anti- & prosocial behaviors & to the students' own religious
activities & rock music preferences & activities. Purported Satanic
involvement is shown to be an extreme form of deviance, most probably connected
to other antisocial activities as a legitimation rather than a motivation. No
evidence is found for Satanism as an organized movement. [Source: SA]
Swain Morgan, Jolene. 1991. “A Descriptive Study of the Relationship between High- Risk Adolescents and Satanic/Ritualistic Abuse.” M.s.w. Thesis, California State University Long Beach.
Abstract: This descriptive
study investigated the relationship between male and female homeless/runaway
adolescents and their involvement in satanic/ritualistic practices. A total of
100 males and 100 females between the ages of 12-19 who received
medical/psychosocial services at a Southern California High Risk Youth Program
between August 1990-February 1991 constituted the sample. It was hypothesized
that homeless/runaway males would have a higher percentage of
satanic/ritualistic abuse and other psycho-social distressors (i.e., substance
abuse, depression and suicidal ideation etc.) than would female sample cohorts.
The results indicated that homeless/runaway males are not more likely to be
involved in satanic/ritualistic practices than females. The results also showed
that basically there is no difference between males and females in area of
substance abuse, survival sex, suicidal ideation, sexual abuse and
depression. [Source: DA]
Galanter, Marc (ed.). 1989. Cults and New Religious Movements: A Report of the American Psychiatric Association. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Assoc.
Abstract: Preface.
Psychotherapy of cult members, P Hamburg and D Hoffman. Civil liberties, cults,
and new religious movements: the psychiatrist's role, P Mohl. Cults and new
religious movements, M Galanter. New religious movements in historical
perspective, E Pattison and R Ness. Contemporary youth: their psychological
needs and beliefs, H Work. Life in the cults, S Levine. Families of cult
members: consultation and treatment, D Halperin. Psychotherapeutic implications
of new religious affiliation, B Kilbourne. Psychological perspectives on cult
leadership, A Deutsch. Persuasive techniques in contemporary cults: a public
health approach, L West. Religious cult membership: a sociobiologic model, B
Wenegrat. The psychology of induction: a review and interpretation, J
Richardson. Deprogramming (involuntary departure), coercion, and cults, J
Ungerleider and D Wellisch. The civil liberties of religious minorities, T Bohn
and J Gutman. Options for legal intervention, R Delgado. Public reaction
against new religious movements, D Bromley and A Shupe. Index. [Source: RI]
Goldberg, Lorna and William Goldberg. 1989. “Family Responses to a Young Adult's Cult Membership and Return.” Cultic Studies Journal pp. 86-100.
Sparkes, Barry Herd. 1989. “Playing with the Devil: Adolescent Involvement with the Occult, Black Magic, Witchcraft and the Satanic to Manage Feelings of Despair.” Ed.d. Thesis, University of Massachusetts.
Abstract: This dissertation
examines the use of the dark areas of the occult in the lives of six
adolescents who have been involved with black magic, satanic ritual, or other
occult practices. All but one of the subjects were connected to the community
helping system because of divorce, abuse and/or neglect, delinquency, and
substance abuse. Data was collected by means of an interview concerned with the
ethnic, economic and religious background of the subjects' family, the
subjects' relationships with family, community and state agencies, and the
duration of involvement with the occult. The interview and data analysis drew
from two perspectives: The first five stages of Erik Erikson's "Eight
Stages of Man" identity development model and the existential
psychological examination of the "problems of youth" by Paul Goodman
in Growing Up Absurd (1960). The study provides an examination of the
historical and current use of the occult as a social-strain gauge and
disturbing parallels of despairing behavior between the youth culture of Weimar
Republic Germany and that of the United States. A strong connection is made
between the involvement with dark areas of the occult and the loss of meaning,
hope and faith. The subjects came from circumstances that hampered healthy
negotiation of Erik Erikson's first five stages of identity development. The
subjects grew up in circumstances that led to despairing beliefs and behaviors,
as described by Goodman. The data suggests that the nature of the use of magic
during early adolescence depends on the nurturent (physical, psychological and
ideological) circumstances of infancy, and latency. If the child despairs
because of insufficient family/community nurturence then the dark, deviant and
depraved element of the occult is more likely to manifest itself. The subjects
represent a larger despairing population (uninvolved with the occult or the
helping system) that puts society at risk politically and economically. The
current youth culture parallels with Weimar Republic youth culture suggest that
this larger despairing population threatens society because they could be
manipulated by historical circumstance and charismatic personalities to commit
widespread depravity in the name of political change. [Source: DA]
Tennant Clark, Cynthia M., Janet J. Fritz, and Fred Beauvais. 1989. “Occult Participation: Its Impact on Adolescent Development.” Adolescence vol. 24, pp. 757-772.
Abstract: Questionnaire
& scale data collected from 25 adolescents ages 12-19 from inpatient &
outpatient drug & alcohol treatment facilities are compared with data from
a matched nonclinical sample to investigate the relationship between substance
abuse, self-esteem, & occult participation. Results reveal a strong
correlation between substance abuse & occult participation, as well as
relationships between high & low occult participation & levels of
self-esteem, tolerance for deviance, & religious involvement. [Source: SA]
Wright, Stuart A., Elizabeth S. Piper, Ken Rigby, and Tony R. Densley. 1986. “Families and Cults: Familial Factors Related to Youth Leaving or Remaining in Deviant Religious Groups.” Journal of Marriage and the Family vol. 48, pp. 15-25.
Abstract: Studied 45 members
of and 45 defectors from 3 highly controversial religious cults (Unification
Church, Hare Krishna, and Children of God) to assess the extent of family
influence on decisions to remain or withdraw. Findings reveal a strong
correlation between measures of family affinity and choices by Ss. Important
differences between leavers and stayers were shown with regard to perceived
parental attitudes toward involvement, prior familial closeness, and adolescent
experiences with families. Parental disapproval was found to be the most
important variable in explaining disaffiliation. A re-examination of the
alleged link between cult involvement and family deprivation--a causal
connection not supported by the present study--is suggested. [Source: PI]
Langone, Michael D. (ed.). 1985. “Cults, Evangelicals, and the Ethics of Social Influence.” Cultic Studies Journal vol. 2, pp. 231-403.
Abstract: Examples of
concern caused by certain groups: Shepherding/discipleship: theology and
practice of absolute obedience, by Linda Blood; Campus Crusade: youth ministers
find public high school campuses to be a fertile field for missionary endeavor,
by Hope Aldrich; Autobiography of a former Moonie, by Gary Scharff. Toward
defining the ethical boundaries of social influence in religious contexts: Why
Evangelicals are vulnerable to cults, by Harold Bussell; The perils of
persuasive preaching, by A Duane Litfin; Selections from the Second Vatican
Council's Declaration on religious freedom; "New organizations operating
under the protection afforded to religious bodies": resolution of the
European Parliament; A statement of evaluation regarding Maranatha Campus Ministries/Maranatha
Christian Ministries/Maranatha Christian Church, by a committee of Evangelical
theologians. Examples of accountability: Guidelines for Opus Dei in Westminster
diocese, by Cardinal Basil Hume; Resolution on missionaries and deprogramming,
by the Department of Interreligious Affairs, United American Hebrew
Congregations;. Disciple abuse, by Gordon MacDonald; How to talk to people who
are trying to save you, by Ross Miller. Invited contributions of the
Inter-Varsity team: Prologue: the Evangelicals set forth their case, by
Dietrich Gruen; A code of ethics for the Christian evangelist; Ethical
evangelism, yes! Unethical proselytizing, no!, by Gordon Lewis; What is
evangelism?, by Mark McCloskey; Evangelism--persuasion or proselytizing?, by
Mark McCloskey; The ethics of persuasion in a pluralistic culture, by Mark
McCloskey; An ethic for Christian evangelism, by Richard L Johannesen; A
hypothetical example, by Dietrich Gruen; Religious freedom at secular schools,
by J W Alexander. Of cults and Evangelicals: labeling and lumping, by R Enroth.
Christian evangelism and social responsibility: an Evangelical view, by Joseph
M Hopkins. Religious pluralism, dialogue, and the ethics of social influence,
by E C Kreider. Evangelization and freedom in the Catholic Church, by J J
LeBar. A Catholic viewpoint on Christian evangelizers, by J E McGuire. Ethics
in proselytizing--a Jewish view, by R D Mecklenburger. Evangelicals and cults,
by M R Rudin. Objectionable aspects of "cults": rhetoric and reality,
by T Robbins. Cults, Evangelicals, and the ethics of social influence, by M D
Langone. [Source: RI]
Levine, Saul V. 1984. “Radical Departures.” Psychology Today vol. 18, pp. 20-27.
Ross, Joan C. 1984. “Adolescents and Cults.” Update pp. 3-4.
Tobacyk, Jerome, Mark J. Miller, and Glenda Jones. 1984. “Paranormal Beliefs of High School Students.” Psychological Reports vol. 55, pp. 255-261.
Abstract: 193 11th graders
were administered the Paranormal Belief Scale, which provides a total
Paranormal Belief score and scores on 7 paranormal subscales (Traditional
Religious Belief, Psi Belief, Witchcraft, Spiritualism, Superstition,
Extraordinary Life Forms, and Precognition). Ss' paranormal scale/subscale
scores were compared to those of 424 college students. Results indicate that,
in general, high school Ss were greater disbelievers in paranormal phenomena
than college Ss. High school Ss showed significantly less belief than college
Ss on the total Paranormal Scale and on the subscales Psi Belief, Extraordinary
Life Forms, and Witchcraft. The number of science courses taken by high school
Ss correlated significantly and inversely with total Paranormal Scale scores,
Traditional Religious Belief scores, and Psi Belief scores, and their
Traditional Religious Belief scores were significantly and directly associated
with GPA. High school Ss in the most accelerated academic track showed
significantly less belief on superstition than Ss in other tracks. [Source: PI]
Fichter, Joseph H. 1983. “Hammering the Heretics: Religion Vs Cults.” Witness pp. 4-6.
Olsson, Peter A. 1983. “Adolescent Involvement with the Supernatural and Cults: Or New Bottles for Old Wine.” Pp. 235-256 in Psychodynamic Perspectives on Religion, edited by D. Halperin. Boston: J. Wright, PSG, Inc.
Abstract: Previously
published in Ann Psychoanalysis, 8, 1980
[Source: RI]
Thomas, Owen C. 1983. “Why Our Children Join the Cults.” Witness pp. 7-9.
Dean, Roger A. 1982. “Youth: Moonies' Target Population.” Adolescence vol. 17, pp. 567-574.
Abstract: Examines the
stages of normative development that predominate during the late adolescent and
early adulthood periods to determine why young people are particularly
vulnerable to the ministrations of cults, particularly those of the Unification
Church (Moonies). The problem of ego identity and its by-products--ego
diffusion, idealism, intellectual curiosity, disillusionment, and traumatic
experiences--are discussed. By recognizing, crystallizing, and responding to
the universal discontent of the young, Reverend Moon, leader of the Unification
Church, forges a powerful bond of identification between himself and an
otherwise diverse group of people. He expresses this sense of dissatisfaction
in universal and transcendental terms with which the young can identify on a
personal level, while still retaining appeal to a broad-based constituency. By
constructing and communicating a utopia, the Unification Church offers broad
sections of discontented young people a new and concrete option for the
reconstruction of their lives. [Source:
PI]
Lukas, Brian Neil. 1982. “Identity Status, Parent-Adolescent Relationships, and Participation in Marginal Religious Groups.” Ph.d. Thesis, California School of Professional Psychology - Berkeley/Alameda.
Abstract: This study
explored the participation of youth in marginal religious groups by testing 5
hypotheses to determine if differences in (1) identity development at the time
of joining and (2) prior parent-adolescent relationships, existed between
Joiners and nonjoiners and members of different marginal religious groups. Data
were collected from 25 participants of the Unification Church, 25 followers of
Meher Baba, and a nonjoiner group of 50 college students. The identity status
scale of Adams, Shea, and Fitch (1979), a perceptions of parents questionnaire
adapted from Block's (1972) study of parents child-rearing practices, and a
background questionnaire were administered. In line with hypothesis 1, joiners
were experiencing significantly more identity Diffusion and nonjoiners
significantly more identity Achievement when compared at the average age of
joining. Contrary to hypothesis 2, parents of nonjoiners tended to be seen as
controlling and protective, while joiners saw their parents as permissive and
uninvolved. These findings seemed to be influenced by the larger number of
females in the nonjoiner group. Hypothesis 3, which hypothesized greater family
religious participation among non- joiners, was partially supported by the
finding that nonjoiners fathers prayed significantly more than fathers of
joiners. The average age of joining was 21-23. Joiners used more
hallucinogenics, had more deaths of parents, and came from suburban and rural
backgrounds, as contrasted with nonjoiners. Contrary to hypothesis 4 Unification
Church members were not in more Diffusion than Meher Baba followers, nor were
the latter in more Moratorium identity status. Unification Church members
perceived themselves as being more in Achievement status with respect to
occupation. This may be a result of the rapid 'conversion' process. Unification
Church members perceived their parents as offering encouragement for
independence in contradiction to hypothesis 5. These trends seemed influenced
by the greater number of males in this group. This study demonstrated that
differences in identity development and family continuity existed between
joiners of marginal religious groups and nonjoiners, and raises these
questions: Are certain youth more vulnerable to the appeals of these groups?
With sex controlled, what are the specific influences of parent- adolescent
relationships on joining? [Source: DA]
Taylor, David. 1982. “Becoming New People: The Recruitment of Young Americans into the Unification Church.” Pp. 177-230 in Millennialism and Charisma, edited by R. Wallis. Belfast, Northern Ireland: Queen's University.
Zerin, Marjory Bernice Fisher. 1982. “The Pied Piper Phenomenon: Family Systems and Vulnerability to Cults.” Ph.d. Thesis, The Fielding Institute.
Abstract: The problem. The
purpose of the study was to identify family system factors in late adolescent
vulnerability to cult recruitment. The exploratory case method was employed.
Assumptions included: (a) youth are not equally vulnerable to cults, (b) family
factors in vulnerability exist, and (c) those factors are associated with
dysfunction in the family system. Procedure. Twelve California families each
containing one or more ex-cult member, comprised the family subjects (FS). The
individual subjects (IS), including the ex-cult members, totaled 70. Three of
the 16 index persons resisted cult affiliation after preliminary involvement.
Eleven of the index subset had been involved with the Unification Church
("Moonies"). Data were collected as follows: (a) the FS performed assigned
interactional tasks in the presence of co- raters and a tape recorder and (b)
the IS completed questionnaires. Three raters independently evaluated the FS
using global and individual measures of family functioning and style (Lewis et
al. & Beavers). Pencil-and-paper data were reviewed. Contrasts were drawn
between the two subgroups of index persons and between the index and sibling
subsets. Conclusions. A correlation between global assessments of dysfunction
in the FS and cult involvement of the index persons was identified. The FS were
evaluated as in the midrange (MR) of dysfunction from the borderline with
severe dysfunction (SD) to the fringes of adequacy. No correlation was
established between resistance to cult recruitment and global ratings of family
competence. Earlier conclusions (Kaslow & Schwartz) that youth who are
vulnerable to cults (a) lack inner direction and (b) have a weak father/child
relationship were supported. Index persons who resisted cult affiliation
successfully, however, showed evidence of both inner direction and a strong
bond with their fathers regardless of their gender and global family
evaluations. They also differed from the balance of the index subset in that
they were not placators. They could and did "say no" when under group
pressure to acquiesce. Conjectures are offered concerning family factors in
vulnerability of the index subset to cults. Recommendations are suggested for
future research. [Source: DA]
Dean, Roger Allen. 1981. “Moonies: A Psychological Analysis of the Unification Church.” Ph.d. Thesis, The University of Michigan.
Abstract: The Unification
Church was examined in depth to discover why so many young people commit
themselves to a totalitarian religious movement so different from their
original value system. The Moonies' belief system, their recruitment practices
and the typologies of youth who populate the movement were explored and
analyzed. During the course of a year long investigation into the Moonie cult
the author interviewed and interacted with cult members and attended their
special events and workshop sessions. Former members were also interviewed to
ensure a realistic and balanced perspective. Results of the study refute the
commonly held assumption that Moonies are brainwashed, unthinking automatons. By
penetrating their logic and belief system one discovers that Moonies are
rational individuals acting in a manner consistent with their view of the
world. A step by step analysis of the cult's recruitment practices, however,
reveals that the Moonies employ a wide variety of proven social psychological
techniques to convince recruits to accept their unique perspective of reality.
Once a recruit acknowledges the Unification perspective, the ideology provides
ample justification for most types of cult behavior which appears bizarre to
non members. Four major typologies of youth (The Immature Emotional, The Simple
Answer Seeker, The Ideals Seeker, and The Social Non Conformist) seem
particularly vulnerable to the ministrations of the Unification message. [Source: DA]
Hershell, Marie and Ben Hershell. 1981. “Our Involvement with a Cult.” Marriage and Family Review vol. 4, pp. 131-140.
Abstract: The parents of a
19-yr-old female undergraduate discuss their daughter's involvement with the
Unification Church and her subsequent deprogramming and rehabilitation. [Source: PI]
Santmire, H. Paul. 1981. “Cults: What We Should Tell Our Young People.” Dialog vol. 20, pp. 57-61.
Singh, Chandralekha P. 1981. “Hare Krishnas: A Study of the Deviant Career of Krishna Devotees.” Ph.d. Thesis, New York University.
Abstract: This dissertation
is a study of the Hare Krishna conversion career. Conversion to Hare Krishna
has been viewed as becoming "deviant" and acquiring a discredited
social identity. The research has been directed to discovering the process of
conversion and its problematic consequences for the converts. Research Method.
Participant observation method was used to collect data. This included close
observation of Hare Krishna devotees--their meanings, philosophy, and
activities, and lengthy, unstructured interviews with forty Krishna devotees in
two temples. The field research was spread over a period of about two years.
Additionally, information was gathered from the movement's literature and other
secondary sources. Focus of the Study. Characteristically, the study is
exploratory and ethnographic where it focuses on the following aspects of Hare
Krishna life: (a) the development of the career to include social-
psychological background of converts, sociohistorical context of conversion,
and the stages of the career; and (b) its social-psychological consequences for
the converts, namely, being deviantized and having to manage the "spoiled
identity" and discredited faith in the larger social world. The study delineates
various specific techniques that are routinely employed by group members in
managing stigma, self-respectability, and maintaining faith. Overall, we follow
the interactionist/labeling perspectives in conceptualizing, interpreting, and
analyzing the Hare Krishna career. Findings. Our research indicates that the
pre-converts tended to be adherents of the counterculture youth values and
life-styles that originated in the 1960's and became more diffused among youth
in the early 1970's. They generally represent the "retreatist,"
apolitical segment of the youth culture who were in search of spiritual
meanings. The study challenges a common view of converts to new religions as
"passive victims," unable to think and act "freely," and
who fall "prey" to "fraudulent," "deceptive"
recruitment of "cults" either because of their psychopathology and/or
"brainwashing" and "mind control." Alternatively, our
research reveals pre-converts to be rational, reflective actors (a view that
symbolic interactionism proposes of humans) who went through actively testing
and rejecting various alternatives prior to joining Hare Krishna, and who
continue to act rationally and interpretively--design and organize their
actions situationally--after joining; lastly, the study demonstrates that the
Hare Krishna "deviance" is socially constructed by social groups by
manufacturing a "mythology" of "cults" and stereotypically
applying it to Hare Krishnas. [Source:
DA]
Wilson, Bryan R. (ed.). 1981. The Social Impact of New Religious Movements. New York: Rose of Sharon Pr.
Abstract: Foreword, by B
Wilson. Welcoming address, by D Kim. The new religions: demodernization and the
protest against modernity, by J Hunter. Youth in search of the sacred, by J
Fichter. Disorientations to mainstream religion: the context of reorientations
in new religious movements, by D Martin. Who'd be a moonie: a comparative study
of those who join the Unification Church in Britain, by E Barker. Yesterday's
children: cultural and structural change in a new religious movement, by R
Wallis. The rise and decline of transcendental meditation,by W Bainbridge and D
Jackson. Must all religions be supernatural? by R Stark. Apostates and atrocity
stories: some parameters in the dynamics of deprogramming, by A Shupe and D Bromley.
Time, generations, and sectarianism, by B Wilson. [Source: RI]
Harrigan, John Edward. 1980. “Becoming a Moonie: An Interview Study of Religious Conversion.” Ed.d. Thesis, University of Maine.
Abstract: To gain
information on religious conversion and commitment of use to counselors,
eighteen male Unification Church seminarians were individually interviewed by
inviting each to talk about his life and his conversion to the Moonie Family.
Uniform invitations to talk were used to determine predisposition, contact-
interaction, and change; spontaneous probing inquiries were made to further
explore the reasons for and the circumstances of conversion. The questions of
the study were answered affirmatively: (1) convertees stated that prior to
meeting the Unification Church they felt lonely and alienated; (2) they had
active face-to-face relationships with convertors willing to listen to them
which apparently led to affective ties occurring before and during introduction
to the Divine Principle--ties which seem important in the conversion process
whereby a person comes to accept the views of friends; (3) by socialization in
their youth they had been taught to believe in a supernatural power; (4) most
described an unsatisfactory life situation, being at a personal turning or
seeking point in life, just prior to contact with Moonies; (5) finally, they
were isolated with Moonies at the time of conversion and commitment. The
attraction of the Divine Principle, extolling unity in a one world family
relationship, was not anticipated; otherwise, the findings on conversion are in
substantial agreement with those of Lofland and Stark (1965), Gerlach and Hine
(1970), and Richardson, Stewart, and Simmonds (1979). Considering the religious
socialization of the respondents in their youth, their conversion can be
described as a shift rather than a change in basic belief. [Source: DA]
Pattison, E. Mansell. 1980. “Religious Youth Cults: Alternative Healing Social Networks.” Journal of Religion and Health vol. 19, pp. 275-286.
Abstract: The motivation of
youth to join esoteric religious cults considered as psychopathology is a
limited and reductionistic interpretation.
Youthful devotees do demonstrate symptoms of psychic distress, which appear
to be significantly ameliorated through participation in religious youth
cults. Two major trends in social
history reveal the sources of youth cults: loss of faith in the rationalistic
Western cosmology and loss of the
extended family system. The
religious youth cult possesses many of the
properties of the normal psychosocial system, which is a critical social
structure for healthful coping in the World.
As a normative social system,
the religious youth cult is an alternative healing system for the
existential crises of contemporary youth. [Source: RI]
Deutsch, Alexander and Michael J. Miller. 1979. “Conflict, Character, and Conversion: Study of a "New-Religion" Member.” Adolescent Psychiatry vol. 7, pp. 257-268.
Abstract: Presents a case
study of a young woman, raised as a Catholic, who became a member of a
religious cult in her early 20's. The influences of certain psychic conflicts
and character trends on her attraction to group life and teachings are
examined, and the nature of the late adolescent turmoil that preceded her
conversion is described. [Source: PI]
Kim, Byong Suh. 1979. “Religious Deprogramming and Subjective Reality.” Sociological Analysis vol. 40, pp. 197-207.
Abstract: Unlike the
psycho-physical interpretation of the Pavlovian approach (Hunter, 1953; Hinkle and Wolffs, 1956) or
psychoanalytic notions (Lifton, 1961;
Meerloo, 1956) on thought reform, we contend in this paper that contemporary
religious deprogramming of American young "cultists" may be best
analyzed in terms of ego-identity change as suggested by Schein (1961). The
ego-edentity change occurs in interaction with
"significant others" who provide a unique plausibility
structure through three specific stages:
a shock treatment of "defreezing", "protective" or
"coercive" persuasion to eliminate
"floating" influence of the "cultist mind-control",
and readjustment of the changed subjective reality to the larger society. A set of data was collected through intensive interviews with 17 deprogrammed youths and a few
deprogrammers and rehabilitators, and
through participant observations in the deprogramming-rehabilitation
sessions. The data then were used as
illustrative and interpretive materials in support of our contention. [Source: RI]
Schwartz, Lita L. and Florence W. Kaslow. 1979. “Religious Cults, the Individual and the Family.” Journal of Marital and Family Therapy vol. 5, pp. 15-26.
Abstract: Draws on clinical
observations, interviews, and literature from a variety of disciplines in
constructing a portrait of the vulnerable youth; the techniques used by cults
to attract, recruit, and convert members; the dynamics of the recruit's family;
and the most effective modes of therapy for intervening. [Source: PI]
Doress, Irvin and Jack Nusan Porter. 1978. “Kids in Cults.” Society vol. 15, pp. 69-71.
Abstract: Three aspects of
young people & cults are discussed. Young people join cults to find a
family, as part of a spiritual search for answers, for security, to
differentiate themselves from their parents, to express adolescent rebellion,
for adventure, for attention, for idealistic reasons, & because of
underemployment & dead-end jobs. They stay in cults because certain needs
are met, they find loving interpersonal relationships, they find a purer moral
& physical environment, a spiritual hunger is satisfied, & because some
have a fear of leaving. Young people may leave cults because of:
disillusionment, the completion of a stage of development, or as a result of a
kidnap rescue. Each of these points is discussed briefly. [Source: SA]
Levine, Saul V. 1978. “Youth and Religious Cults: A Societal and Clinical Dilemma.” Adolescent Psychiatry vol. 6, pp. 75-89.
Abstract: Examined religious
cults and their current popularity among young people. 109 members of fringe
religious groups were interviewed in great detail over a 4-mo period, and
discussions took place with other group members. Demographic, psychiatric,
sociological, and family aspects of the cult phenomenon are discussed. While
most of these adolescents do not evidence severe psychiatric illness, fringe
religions attract young people who are struggling with developmental problems,
and fulfill unmet needs by providing a belief system, mysticism, communality,
structure, and frequently a charismatic leader. The difficulties experienced by
parents of cult members are acknowledged. Many of the members interviewed
reported relief of painful psychological symptoms and an increase in personal
happiness, and the implications for therapy of such reports should be carefully
considered by psychiatrists. [Source:
PI]
Melton, J. Gordon. 1978. “Gaggle of Groups.” Christianity Today vol. 22, pp. 40-41.
Pilarzyk, Thomas. 1978. “The Origin, Development, and Decline of a Youth Culture Religion: An Application of Sectarianization Theory.” Review of Religious Research vol. 20, pp. 23-43.
Abstract: Wallis' theory of
sectarianization is applied to data collected on the Divine Light Mission, a
contemporary cultic movement of
American youth culture. Its development
is discussed in terms of intra-organizational changes within the social context
of American pluralism. The movement's
short history to date largely substantiates Wallis' writings concerning the
effects of cultic fragility, sectarianizing strategies and organizational
constraints on movement development.
The paper contributes to recent conceptual writings within the sociology
of religion on youth culture
movements in modern western societies.
[Source: RI]
Glock, Charles Y. and Robert N. Bellah, (eds.). 1976. New Religious Consciousness. Berkeley: Univ of California Pr.
Abstract: New religious
movements in the Asian tradition: Summer solstice of the Health-Happy-Holy
Organization, A Tobey. Hare Krishna in San Francisco, G Johnson. Guru Maharaj
Ji and the Divine Light Mission, J Messer. New quasi-religious movements: New
Consciousness and the Berkeley New Left, R N Bellah. Human Potential Movement,
D Stone. Synanon: The people business, R Ofshe. New religious movements in the
Western tradition: Christian World Liberation Front, D Heinz. Catholic
Charismatic Renewal, R Lane, Jr. Church of Satan, R H Alfred. Response of the
established religions: Church student ministries and the New Consciousness, B
Hargrove. Three congregations, J Wolfe. Jewish identity and the counterculture,
T Piazza. Survey: New religions in social context, R Wuthnow. Historical
perspective: Religious change in 19th-century America, L K Pritchard.
Conclusions: New religious consciousness and the crisis in modernity, R N
Bellah. Consciousness among contemporary youth: An interpretation, C Y Glock.
Index. [Source: RI]
Anderson, Godfrey. 1975. “Countering the Gospel of Some Cults That Attract Youth.” National Observer vol. 14.
Greeley, Andrew M. 1974. “Implications for the Sociology of Religion of Occult Behavior in the Youth Culture.” Pp. 295-302 in On the Margin of the Visible, edited by E. A. Tiryakian. New York: Wiley.
Rossel, Robert D. 1974. “Religious Movements and the Youth Culture.” Human Context vol. 6, pp. 621-631.
Abstract: See sa 73s00085/swsa/1973/0336. [Source: SA]